Hakka /ˈhækə/, also rendered Kejia, is one of the major Chinese language subdivisions or varieties and is spoken natively by the Hakka people in southern China, Taiwan and throughout the diaspora areas of East Asia, Southeast Asia and around the world.
Due to its primary usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, the Hakka language has developed numerous variants or dialects, spoken in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, and Guizhou provinces, including Hainan island, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Wu, Southern Min, or other branches of Chinese. It is most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan.
Taiwan, where Hakka language is the native language of a significant minority of the island's residents, is an important world center for study and preservation of the language. Pronunciation differences exist between the Taiwanese Hakka dialect and China's Guangdong Hakka dialect, and even in Taiwan two local varieties of Hakka exist within that dialect.
The Meixian dialect (Moiyen) of northeast Guangdong in China has been taken as the "standard" dialect by the People's Republic of China. The Guangdong Provincial Education Department created an official romanization of Moiyen in 1960, one of four languages receiving this status in Guangdong.
Etymology
The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the language literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak 客 (Mandarin: kè) means "guest", and ka 家 (Mandarin: jiÄ) means "family". Amongst themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va) 客家話, Hak-fa (-va), 客話, Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va) 土廣æ±è©±, literally, "Native Guangdong language", and Ngai-fa (-va) æˆ'話, "My/our language".
History
Early history
It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest dating back as far as the end of Western Jin. The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Henan and Shaanxi provinces and brought with them features of Chinese languages spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then, the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin). The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese languages, but which have been lost in Mandarin.
Due to the migration of its speakers, the Hakka language may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and She (Hmongâ€"Mien) languages.
Some people consider Hakka to have mixed with other languages, such as the language of the She people, throughout its development.
Linguistic development
A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese languages, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:
- Characters such as æ¦ (war, martial arts) or 屋 (room, house), are pronounced roughly mwio and uk (mjuX and 'uwk in Baxter’s transcription) in Early Middle Chinese, have an initial v phoneme in Hakka, being vu and vuk in Hakka respectively. Like in Mandarin, labiodentalisation process also changed mj- to a w-like sound in Hakka before grave vowels, while Cantonese retained the original distinction (compare Mandarin æ¦ wu3, 屋 wu1, Cantonese æ¦ mou5, 屋 uk1).
- Middle Chinese initial phonemes /ɲ/ (ny in Baxter’s transcription) of the characters 人 and 日, among others, merged with ng- /ŋ/ initials in Hakka (人 ngin, 日 ngit). For comparison, in Mandarin, /ɲ/ became r- (人 rén, 日 rì), while in Cantonese, it merged with initial /j/ (人 yan4, 日 yat6).
- The initial consonant phoneme exhibited by the character 話 (word, speech; Mandarin hua) is pronounced f or v in Hakka (v does not properly exist as a distinct unit in many Chinese languages).
- The initial consonant of å¸ hÉ"k usually corresponds with an h [h] approximant in Hakka and a voiceless alveo-palatal fricative (x [É•]) in Mandarin.
Phonology
Dialects
The Hakka language has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. Some of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Surrounding Meixian are the counties of Pingyuan (å¹³é , Pin Yen), Dabu (大åŸ", Tai Pu), Jiaoling (蕉嶺, Jiao Liang), Xingning (興寧, Hin Nen), Wuhua (äº"è¯, Ng Fah), and Fengshun (è±é †, Foong Soon). Each is said to have its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, the Xingning does not have rimes ending in [-m] or [-p]. These have merged into [-n] and [-t] ending rimes, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the [-u-] medial, so whereas Moiyen pronounces the character å…‰ as [kwÉ"ŋ˦], Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as [kÉ"ŋ˧], which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.
As much as endings and vowels are important, the tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their Ru Sheng tones, and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-Ru tones. Such a dialect is Changting é•·æ±€ which is situated in the Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng æµ·è± and Lufeng é™¸è± situated on coastal south eastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the Qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in Ping and Ru tones and a Shang tone).
In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian (Hakka: Siyen 四縣) and Haifeng (Hakka: Hoi Foong æµ·è±), alternatively known as Hailu (Hakka: Hoiluk 海陸). Hakka dialect speakers found on Taiwan originated from these two regions. Sixian (Hakka: Siyen, 四縣) speakers come from Jiaying (嘉應) and surrounding Jiaoling, Pingyuan, Xingning, and Wuhua. Jiaying county later changed its name to Meixian. The Hoiliuk dialect contains postalveolar consonants ([ʃ], [Ê'], [tʃ], etc.), which are uncommon in other southern Chinese languages. Wuhua, Dabu, and Xingning dialects have two sets of fricatives and affricates.
Ethnologue reports the dialects as Yue-Tai (Meixian, Wuhua, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia: Meizhou above), Yuezhong (Central Guangdong), Huizhou, Yuebei (Northern Guangdong), Tingzhou (Min-Ke), Ning-Long (Longnan), Yugui, Tonggu.
Vocabulary
Like other southern Chinese languages, Hakka retains single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus it can differentiate a large number of working syllables by tone and rime. This reduces the need for compounding or making words of more than one syllable. However, it is also similar to other Chinese languages in having words which are made from more than one syllable.
Hakka prefers the verb [kÉ"ŋ˧˩] 講 when referring to saying rather than the Mandarin shuŠ說 (Hakka [sÉ"tË©]).
Hakka uses [sitË¥] 食, like Cantonese [sɪk˨] for the verb "to eat" and 飲 [jÉm˧˥] (Hakka [jim˧˩]) for "to drink", unlike Mandarin which prefers chÄ« åƒ (Hakka [kÊ°iÉ›tË©]) as "to eat" and hÄ" å– (Hakka [hÉ"tË©]) as "to drink" where the meanings in Hakka are different, to stutter and to be thirsty respectively.
Writing systems
Various dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century.
Previously, the single largest work in Hakka is the New Testament and Psalms (1993, 1138 pp., see The Bible in Chinese: Hakka), although since 2012, that has been surpassed by the publication of the complete Hakka Bible known as the Today's Taiwan Hakka Version and includes the Old Testament along with audio recordings. These works render Hakka in both romanization (phaÌk-fa-sá¹³) and Han characters (including ones unique to Hakka) and are based on the dialects of Taiwanese Hakka speakers. The work of Biblical translation is being performed by missionaries of the Presbyterian Church in Canada.
The popular The Little Prince has also been translated into Hakka (2000), specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan (itself a variant of the Sixian dialect). This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.
See also
- Varieties of Chinese
References
- Branner, David Prager (2000). Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology â€" the Classification of Miin and Hakka. Trends in Linguistics series, no. 123. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-015831-1.Â
Further reading
- Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (2010). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of Its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Princeton/Cambridge Studies in Chinese Linguistics 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBNÂ 0-521-13367-X.Â
- O'Connor, Kevin A. (1976). "Proto-Hakka". Ajia Afurika gengo bunka kenkyÅ« / Journal of Asia and Africa Studies 11 (1): 1â€"64.Â
- Schaank, Simon Hartwich (1897). Het Loeh-foeng-dialect (in Dutch). Leiden: E.J. Brill. Retrieved 11 February 2015.Â
External links
- Hakka text-to-speech
- Hakka People Online
- Searching for My Hakka Roots
- Classification of Hakka Dialects
- Aspects of Meixian/Moiyen Dialect of Hakka Phonology
- Information about Hakka
- Video with basic hakka sentences as used by the East Timorese Chinese on YouTube
- Chinese to Hakka Character Converter